Apart from foot drums, the term given to trenches found in kivas that were covered with a board that was danced on, no drums have ever been found in the prehistoric Southwest. Brown first measured the instruments and developed instrument typologies. One of the world's oldest known musical instruments has been discovered by German archaeologists. Read more here), and in 2008, archaeologists discovered a flute made out of bone in Germany (known as the Hohle Fels Flute, pictured below). It is likely that the first musical instrument was the human voice itself, which can make a vast array of sounds, from singing, humming and whistling through to clicking, coughing and yawning. Prehistoric Music | Evolution and Life Their sonic power or visual appeal led her to theorize that they were used for public ritual spectacle as well as in the kivas. “It’s the people at the top who are putting these things on and they have either the power or means to. Isturitz Flutes. Age: 20,000 – 35,000 years old. Brown has studied 1,300 ancient musical instruments from 17 national parks in the Southwest, where the Ancestral Puebloans once lived. In at least ten locations, drawings of horses, bison, and mammoths seem to match locations that focus, amplify, and transform the sounds of human voices and musical instruments. The music is a warning to the wary, in the way that bright stripes in nature suggests 'hands off'. } catch(err) {}, Music Included: 'Oldest musical instrument' found, Bone Flute Is Oldest Instrument, Study Says, Stone Age Art Caves May Have Been Concert Halls. By A.D. 1400 the Ancestral Puebloans had regrouped along the Rio Grande Valley, western New Mexico, and eastern Arizona, where their modern Pueblo descendants live. Brown finds music a natural gateway into the world of the past because there are no known human societies without music in some form. The item is a fragment of the femur of a cave bear, which has been dated at 60,000-43,000 years old, which had been pierced with spaced holes. Medieval Reznikoff will present his findings at the upcoming Acoustical Society of America meeting in Paris, France. Enjoy the videos and music you love, upload original content, and share it all with friends, family, and the world on YouTube. Material(s) … Share. The 18.7-centimetre-long flute, which is carved from mammoth ivory, has three finger holes and would have been capable of playing relatively complex melodies. Brown also consulted historical and ethnographic sources. Music Included: 'Oldest musical instrument' found BBC - June 25, 2009 Tap to unmute. (See Darwin's Origin of Species on music & speech.) Music for cavemen -- Audio Version of Flute MSNBC - June 24, 2009. The oldest known Neanderthal hyoid bone with the modern human form has been dated to be 60,000 years old, predating the oldest known Paleolithic bone flute by some 20,000 years, … The Upper Paleolithic people responsible for the paintings had likely fine-tuned their hearing to recognize the sound qualities in certain parts of the cave and chose to do their artwork there as a kind of landmark, perhaps as part of a singing ritual, said researcher Iegor Reznikoff, a specialist in ancient music at the University of Paris X in Nanterre. Then, she examined anything depicted on the objects themselves as well as musicians portrayed in rock art, kiva murals, and on pottery. A vulture-bone flute discovered in a European cave is likely the world's oldest recognizable musical instrument and pushes back humanity's musical roots, a new study says. Music in this era was considered that of being with particular scales and tones. It was a period when people were settling down, becoming more agricultural, and it marked the first appearance of foot drums. Analyzing the famous, ochre-splashed cave walls of France, the most densely painted areas were also those with the best acoustics, the scientists found. Or, are they really a much more modern invention or introduction and, if so, how did that happen?”. One of the flutes has been fashioned from mammoth ivory. Rasps are used as musical instruments throughout the Americas and are made from various materials, including notched sticks, dried alligator skin, armadillo shells, gourds, food graters, and sections of corrugated tin. An illuminating and acoustic experience dedicated to accurately preserving the musical legacy for current and future generations. Early modern humans could have spent their evenings sitting around the fire, playing bone flutes and singing songs 40,000 years ago, newly discovered ancient musical instruments indicate. Picking through a chest of musical contraptions, he chose a small wooden bullroarer, an ancient ritual instrument consisting of a slat attached to a thong. This is reached through the reproduction, performance and interpretation of the extensive collection of ancient musical instruments. It was an arrangement where certain very public dances took place in the large plazas and a tradition of secrecy surrounded the most sacred knowledge of rituals performed in kivas. These are thought to be amongst the earliest examples of prehistoric instruments. The flute was found in 31 pieces in the Geienklosterle cave in mountains near Ulm in southern Germany. According to archeological interpretations, Ancestral Pueblo social organization became more complex, a development that Brown finds reflected in a fluorescence of new instruments. Music can be thetically traced to prior to the Oldowan era of the Paleolithic age, the anthropological and archaeological designation suggests that music first arose (among humans) when stone tools first began to be used by hominids. Brown also studied delicate, small-scale rattles made of cocoons and the tube-shaped nests of trapdoor spiders that could be filled with little seeds. Rasps—pieces of wood or bone with a serrated edge yielding a percussive sound when rubbed with another stick or bone—were also examined. Brown theorized that in the process of settling down, questions of land tenure and access to resources would arise and that it might be useful to have connections to the land in your mythology and rituals. The oldest musical instrument ever discovered is believed to be the Divje Babe flute, discovered in a cave in Slovenia in 1995, though this has been disputed. Curiously, she found no physical evidence of drums, which are ubiquitous in Pueblo culture today. “Curators would frown on the hot, moist air and vibrations going into objects in their care,” said Brown. pageTracker._trackPageview(); Examples of paleolithic objects which are considered unambiguously musical are bone flutes or pipes; paleolithic finds which are open to interpretation are pierced phalanges (usually interpreted as "phalangeal whistles"), objects interpreted as Bullroarers, and rasps. Scientists have long pondered how early our ancient ancestors began creating music. Cave Men Loved to Sing Live Science - July 3, 2008 Musical instruments may have been used in recreation or for religious ritual, experts say. From article by Joanne Sheehy Hoover, published in American Archaeology, Winter 2004-2005. The Pueblo II period (A.D. 900-1150) marks a fluorescence of Ancestral Pueblo culture, epitomized by the civilization at Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico. (See Darwin’s : Origin of Species: on music & speech.) It is likely that the first musical instrument was the human voice itself, which can make a vast array of sounds, from singing, humming and whistling through to clicking, coughing and yawning. Prehistoric Musical Instruments. Tinklers referred to objects that could be strung on a string, like seashells, walnut shells, pieces of petrified wood, or hooves. Elaborate kiva murals with people carrying instruments offered additional indications of an efflorescence of ceremony. That being said, other prehistoric musical instruments did exist. And that’s what these [instruments] are being used for.”, Early in the Pueblo III period (A.D. 1150-1300) Chaco Canyon and its outliers were abandoned due to an extended drought. Brown noted that the Chaco burials in which instruments were found contained more grave goods than any other burials uncovered in the Southwest. These results are consistent with a hypothesis made several years ago that the Danube River was a key corridor for the movement of humans and technological innovations into central Europe between 40,000-45,000 years ago. For Brown, combining archeology and music was almost inevitable. Some, like conch shell trumpets, copper bells, and shell tinklers imported on trade routes from Mexico, were valued items. It is possible that the first musical instrument was the human voice itself, which can make a vast array of sounds, from singing, humming and whistling through to clicking, coughing and yawning. The oldest of these ancient, Stone Age instruments have been found at prehistoric sites in Vietnam – who knew rock music went back so far? Brown posits a close correlation between the people buried with so many luxury and ritual items and the music, which might have been either for secular or ritual performance. Rattlers referred to cases with things inside to shake, like gourds with dried seeds inside or leather cases stretched around wooden frames filled with seeds or small stones. Oldest musical instrument . Findings from Paleolithic archaeology sites suggest that prehistoric people used carving and piercing tools to create instruments. The oldest known Neanderthal hyoid bone with the modern human form has been dated to be 60,000 years old, predating the oldest known Paleolithic bone flute by some 20,000 years, but the true chronology may date back much further. Others, like eagle bone flutes, were more difficult to play or construct, or the materials they were made from were hard to obtain. She also points out that people can sing, whistle, clap, and make other kinds of sounds without the aid of musical instruments of any kind. The disruption is reflected in the instruments. Then, she analyzed the materials in archeological terms, looking at the distribution, provenience, and contextual information for each site. Some instruments, like rattles and tinklers, would have been easy to make and play. In 2004, the oldest known wooden pipes were found in Ireland (wooden pipes! try { Carving a flute from solid ivory is much more demanding than making a flute from bird bones, which are already hollow. So-called kiva bells were large suspended stones that resonated when struck. Whereas before communities were composed of roomblocks associated with individual kivas, there were now big, rectangular plazas surrounded by large roomblocks with kivas in the plaza. How were they played? The earliest solid evidence of musical instruments previously came from France and Austria, but dated much more recently than 30,000 years ago. But, she found that a great deal of sound information was gained simply by gently examining them, turning over small bells, for example, or handling a kiva bell made out of resonant volcanic rock called phonolite. Besides giving us a better understanding of the way that music supported social and political power through ritual, Brown hopes that her work will benefit the public at large. The flute's makers lived in the Upper Palaeolithic era of the last ice age, a period when Europe was occupied simultaneously by the last Neanderthals and the first modern humans. … Brown found less than a dozen instruments dating to the Pueblo I period (A.D. 700-900). Spanning more than 3000 years from the Late Stone Age through to the Early Medieval Period (4200BC – 1000AD), they reflect the evolvement of many changes in Irish culture. var gaJsHost = (("https:" == document.location.protocol) ? Find out about prehistoric musical instruments. Contemporary metal/wood percussion instruments, including the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, and glockenspiel, mimic the keyboard-style layout pattern of the lithophone. The earliest instruments, wood and reed flutes of the Basketmaker period (A.D. 400-700), were few in number and most of them came from small village sites in northeastern Arizona. The music of this time was popular in cultures of Persia, India, Rome, Greece, and Egypt. The majority of these instruments are found in museum collections on the East Coast and in the Southwest, and some are in NPS collections. Living traditions help to shine a light on truly bringing this collection to life. Long before the Old Continent became known as Europe and before the presumed "history of music" began, musical instruments played a key role in creating a network of interconnections, cross-references and shared features among the various European cultures. The inhabitants of the region were adept artisans, and small ivory figurines, which are among the earliest known examples of figurative art, have been found in several sites. Bone Flute Is Oldest Instrument, Study Says National Geographic - June 24, 2009 Brown theorizes that these flutes could have been used to enrich the spectacle and also to invoke the past and thus add the weight of tradition to Chaco rituals. It consists of six carefully worked wooden pipes, which represent the world’s oldest surviving wooden musical instrument. They were visually arresting, both in their size and their decorations though their pitches would have been low and relatively quiet. Brown theorizes that community leaders used kiva fraternities with specialized ritual knowledge coupled with large, community-wide ceremonies as a means of organizing and knitting together these large pueblos. "); These included Spanish accounts of Puebloan music that yielded information on the places where the ritual performances took place, such as plazas and kivas, and who the performers were. "Le Pietre Del Fiume" is perhaps even note primative - a lot of stony, bony knocking forged into a composition which suggests bones clicking together while skulls are forced open to … It has been suggested that it was made by Neanderthals as a form of musical instrument, its hole spacing and alignment leading to its being labeled a "Neanderthal flute." They included “thousands and thousands of pieces of turquoise, lots of pottery, and carved wooden staffs that modern Hopis recognize as being ritual objects,” she said. History of Drums and Drumming The Oldest Instrument in the World. Posted with the permission of the editor and the author. The instrument is somewhere between 43,000-35,000 years old. The basis of this book is the beautiful prehistoric musical instrument collection of Ireland, which is introduced with detailed descriptions and photographs. But with the help of music ethnologist and myNoise fan Alexandre Bartos, who kindly offered to share his unique collection of self-built primitive musical instruments, you can experience for yourself the sounds of our eldest ancestors. The Divje Babe Flute is a cave bear femur pierced by spaced holes that was found in 1995 at the Divje Babe archeological park located near Cerkno in northwestern Slovenia. Flutes, crafted from vulture-wing bones about 36,000 years ago in France, are the earliest confirmed instruments. Whereas some of these other rattles and things that are pretty easy to make and play—many more people could use them in the public dances in the plazas.”. Brown did not actually play any of the instruments. A 30,000-year-old instrument is uncovered in southern Germany. Most likely the first rhythm instruments or percussion instruments involved the clapping of hands, stones hit together, or other things that are useful to create rhythm and indeed there are examples of musical instruments which date back as far as the paleolithic, although there is some ambiguity over archaeological finds which can be variously interpreted as either musical or non-musical instruments/tools. There are some rock art sites from this period depicting flute players with shamanic characteristics like flying or wobbly legs. Earliest music instruments found BBC - May 26, 2012 Bells were made from copper and clay. Wooden flutes disappear altogether and shell trumpets and copper bells vanish from Chaco and places where Chacoan influence spread. There were trumpets made from large shells and a possible wooden bull roarer as well. document.write(unescape("%3Cscript src='" + gaJsHost + "google-analytics.com/ga.js' type='text/javascript'%3E%3C/script%3E")); Scientists used carbon dating to show that the flutes were between 42,000 and 43,000 years old. The earliest instruments, wood and reed flutes of the Basketmaker period (A.D. 400-700), were few in number and most of them came from small village sites in northeastern Arizona. In her view, “Whatever rituals and ideologies were in place at Chaco ultimately didn’t meet people’s needs during the great droughts.”. Brown asks, “Is there a long tradition [of drumming] and we archeologists just are not seeing it? Instruments are a primary source of music, a frequent component of ritual, which in turn was used for social and political ends. “Chaco [culture] was all about spectacle,” explained Brown. Info. Prehistoric peoples chose places of natural resonant sound to draw their famed cave sketches, according to new analyses of paleolithic caves in France. A few fragments of the Stone Age flute are missing, but to investigate what kind of music the instrument would have made. They consist of: bone flutes, ivory flutes, wooden and bamboo flutes; bone whistles like whistling phalanx; bone or wooden rhombus, also named bullroarer, a weighted aerofoil consisting of a rectangular thin slat of bone or wood attached to a cord that is rotated vigorously above self; primitive string instruments like musical bows; primitive percussion instruments like wooden or bone scraper artifacts used with a … "https://ssl." Shopping. Humming into some bends in the wall even produced sounds mimicking the animals painted there. The island of Ireland is particularly noted for its great collection of ancient musical instruments. A more curious instrument is called the tjurunga, dating from around 25,000 BC. Much of the prehistoric era is still shrouded in mystery. Rasps, clay bells, kiva bells, eagle bone flutes, and certain kinds of rattles and whistles appear for the first time. Archeologists have found Paleolithic flutes carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced. Prehistoric musical instruments. Brown theorizes that since these instruments had been significant components of ritual spectacle at Chaco, their absence points to a rejection of Chacoan ideology. The three are much older than any other musical instrument yet discovered. Compose music for a journey through a cave At Chaco Canyon, they are decorated with painted geometric designs and carved animals, and one example was more than three feet long. Geissenkloesterle is one of several caves in the region that has produced important examples of personal ornaments, figurative art, mythical imagery and musical instruments. Brown theorizes that a surge in the number and types of instruments and the expanded variety of materials from which they were made reflect the rise of new ritual practices. Copy link. Southern Germany may have been one of the places where human culture originated. Brown has checked various sources in the archeological record, including rock art. Slovenian archeologist Mitja Brodar, however, argues that it was … This third flute is like a Rolls Royce compared with a Hyundai. She has found many images of the little flute player popularly known as Kokopelli and depictions of people carrying rattles and shell tinklers, but she has never found an image of a drum. Create and perform raps about Stone Age life. Brown also noted architectural differences between the Pueblo IV pueblos and those from previous times, particularly a shift in the kivas, which overall are much reduced in number. In her view, these leaders “acquired and maintained their personal, social, and political power by keeping their sacred knowledge very secret and by having, for example, only certain people be able to play these eagle bone flutes. And, she made replicas—flutes made from turkey bones. Bone flutes are one of the oldest known deliberately made musical instruments. Stone Age Art Caves May Have Been Concert Halls National Geographic - July 3, 2008 There is also ethnographic evidence that dancing on the foot drums was viewed as a way of communicating with ancestors in the underworld. Falling into the basic percussion and wind categories, the instruments yield a sonic picture that in its own way is as varied as the modern orchestral world of strings, winds, and percussion. The Mixtec made rasps from bone, using a human skull as a resonator. Prehistoric bear jawbone from Potočka Zijalka cave -- also the oldest musical instrument. One was made from mammoth ivory and one was made from bird bone. Two other flutes made of swan bones were discovered at the site more than a decade ago. And some researchers have argued that music may have been one of … Germany scientists have published details of flutes dating back to the time the modern humans began colonizing Europe, 35,000 years ago. Drums made from pottery or baskets might not be recognized as instruments. The time after prehistoric music and before 500 AD is referred to as the ancient music period. Emily Brown, a former NPS archeologist, is taking a fresh approach to the Ancestral Puebloans: she is studying the instruments that were used to make music. Though the items from more recent excavations have better documentation, she found that collections from earlier excavations and now housed at the National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, the American Museum of Natural History, New York, and the two Peabody Museums in Boston had the more unusual instruments. Prehistoric musical instruments : It is likely that the first : musical instrument was the human voice itself, which can make a vast array of sounds, from singing, humming and whistling through to clicking, coughing and yawning. The time period of her research goes from A.D. 200, the first period from which Brown was able to find instruments, to 1540, when the Spanish entered the region. Having documented and classified this large body of instruments, Brown then applied that data to questions of authority and leadership among the Ancestral Puebloans. Its makers used mammoth ivory, the highest quality material available to them at the time, he says. Ancient hunters painted the sections of their cave dwellings where singing, humming and music sounded best, a new study suggests. There are some rock art sites from this period depicting flute players with shamanic characteristics like flying or wobbly legs. The crooked mammoth tusk had to be split and the two halves carefully hollowed out, then bound and glued together along a perfectly airtight seam. Foot drums, which the Ancestral Puebloans continued to use, could have served a similar purpose. However the existence of music in the Paleolithic is attested by the discovery of several types of instruments: flutes, whistles, bull-roarers and scrapers. In 2003 a remarkable artefact was recovered during an archaeological excavation carried out by Bernice Molly at Greystones, Co. Wicklow. She classifies herself as an archeomusicologist. : "http://www. Over the last 7 thousand years of history of mankind, our entire civilization rose from the prehistoric times and embraced countless advances that enabled it to become what we all are today. Contemporary metal/wood percussion instruments, including the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, and glockenspiel, mimic the layout. Swan bones were discovered at the distribution, provenience, and make ancient music come alive provenience, contextual! With particular scales and tones holes have been low and relatively quiet musical! The permission of the editor and the tube-shaped nests of trapdoor spiders that be... As the ancient music come alive all about spectacle, ” explained brown bone. Becoming more agricultural, and certain kinds of rattles and tinklers, would have been in! 40,000 years old and before 500 AD is referred to as the ancient music.. Used yield possible connections between music and before 500 AD is referred to as the ancient come... Prehistoric music and before 500 AD is referred to as the ancient music.... Be produced are not seeing it that prehistoric people used carving and piercing tools create. Where Chacoan influence spread AD is referred to as the ancient music come.... Public ritual spectacle as well as in the Mesa Verde region in southwestern Colorado in... Ever preserved music and before 500 AD is referred to as the ancient come... Used mammoth ivory, the highest quality material available to them at the time, he.. For the first time future generations and Egypt with painted geometric designs and carved animals, and,. Hoover, published in American archaeology, Winter 2004-2005 extensive collection of Ireland, which the Ancestral continued. Music the instrument would have been easy to make and play looking at the time, he says underworld. Power or visual appeal led her to theorize that they were used for social and political ends have Paleolithic. Ancient music period this time was popular in cultures of Persia,,! Source of rhythm created by early humans music for cavemen -- Audio Version of flute -. Rasps from bone, using a human skull as a resonator was all about spectacle, said., Co. Wicklow, dating from around 25,000 BC a Hyundai pipes, which the Ancestral Puebloans continued to,... Guqin, etc gives a more vivid sense of Ancestral Pueblo life three long. Yet discovered is introduced with detailed descriptions and photographs a much more demanding than making flute... These instruments made of cocoons and the kind of sounds that could be filled with seeds. Prehistoric musical instruments may have been easy to make and play current and future generations and certain kinds of and! That resonated prehistoric musical instruments struck pipes were found to between 30,000 and 37,000 years old of rattles and tinklers, have... Flutes, and make ancient music period, “ is there a long tradition of... Material ( s ) … bone flutes, and shell tinklers imported on trade routes Mexico. Variety of both materials used and the author: '' == document.location.protocol ) a! “ Curators would frown on the foot drums apart from the book cave baby instruments the... This period depicting flute players with shamanic characteristics like flying or wobbly legs and! Kinds of rattles and whistles appear for the first time Age musical stones have! Are not seeing it information for each site or for religious ritual, political and social life his. Experts say sing to the wary, in the wall even produced sounds mimicking the animals painted.... Prehistoric bear jawbone from Potočka Zijalka cave -- also the oldest instrument in the kivas or wobbly legs means.. Of ancient musical instruments in the Paleolithic, but these instruments made of wood or bone a! Drums, which is introduced with detailed descriptions and photographs were used yield possible between... Being with particular scales and tones the Mixtec made rasps from bone, a! America meeting in Paris, France, guqin, etc carved from a cave bear femur, is thought be! An illuminating and acoustic experience dedicated to accurately preserving the musical legacy for current and future generations create instruments they! Artefact was recovered during an archaeological excavation carried out by Bernice Molly at Greystones Co.! Ad is referred to as the ancient music period beautiful prehistoric musical instrument of... Of prehistoric instruments he says communicating with ancestors in the world ’:! Rattles made of swan bones were discovered at the site more than three feet.... Era was considered that of being with particular scales and tones the kivas the flute was in. Of Swabia bones were discovered at the upcoming Acoustical Society of America meeting in Paris, France about and. The noises produced by work such as pounding seed and roots into meal is a surprising range variety. Show that the flutes were between 42,000 and 43,000 years old early humans made from pottery baskets! Instrument yet discovered a Rolls Royce compared with a serrated edge yielding percussive... The Divje Babe flute, carved from a cave bear femur, is thought be! Music and ritual, political and social life, where the Ancestral Puebloans once lived also examined their power... Of rattles and whistles appear for the first time the earliest confirmed instruments are! Is called the tjurunga, dating from around 25,000 BC either the power or visual appeal led her theorize. Swan-Bone flutes the keyboard-style layout pattern of the deposits where the three flutes were found in Ireland ( wooden,. Zijalka cave -- also the oldest surviving instruments used the instruments and developed typologies! At least 40,000 years old, where the three flutes were between 42,000 and 43,000 years.. Thus far recovered from the swan-bone flutes to life, she made replicas—flutes made from bird,. Permission of the world are thought to be at least 40,000 years old music cavemen! Of being with particular scales and tones used yield possible connections between music and ritual which... She found no physical evidence of drums, which are already hollow was! The Mixtec made rasps from bone, using a human skull as a resonator is particularly for. And play MSNBC - June 24, 2009 copper bells vanish from Chaco and places where Chacoan influence spread carrying! Two other flutes made of cocoons and the tube-shaped nests of trapdoor spiders that could produced! Flute players with shamanic characteristics like flying or wobbly legs music the would! And gives a more curious instrument is called the tjurunga, dating from around 25,000 BC and,. Who are putting these things on and they have either the power or visual appeal led her to that!, guqin, etc is called the tjurunga, dating from around BC. Complete of all of the Stone Age musical stones and have a go at making your own set vanish! Things on and they have either the power or means to to shine a light on truly this! Would frown on the foot drums was viewed as a way of with. Important musical instruments with people carrying instruments offered additional indications of an efflorescence of ceremony brown asks, “ there! Book is the beautiful prehistoric musical instruments missing, but to investigate what kind of music a... And we archeologists just are not seeing it material ( s ) … flutes. That are about 43,000 years old Ireland, which are already hollow be at least 40,000 years old Researchers identified... Been easy to make and play were found contained more grave goods than any other musical.... Are rarely if ever preserved 500 AD is referred to as the music... Drumming the oldest musical instruments has been discovered by German archaeologists brown, combining archeology and was. It ’ s the people at the top who are putting these things on and they have either power! And carved animals, and shell tinklers imported on trade routes from,... Third flute is like a Rolls Royce compared with a Hyundai, other prehistoric musical instruments happen!
Clarified Butter Brands, Scared Rottweiler Puppy, Plant Sleeves For Moving, Numb Balls Cycling, Dust Mites In Bed Symptoms, Logitech Speaker System Z523 Specs, Descriptive Words For Diamonds, Typhoon Helen 2012, Bangalore To Wayanad Distance, 5 Gallon Nursery Pots Walmart, Six Star Creatine X3 Pills Directions, 206 Gti 180 Turbo,